Eskimo Grammar
by Edmund Peck

Preface

The Eskimo although a widely scattered race still retain a striking similarity in language.

Having compared words from Greenland, Labrador and Churchill with those at Little Whale River, I believe, an Eskimo or person well acquainted with the language would find but little difficulty in conversing with the people anywhere.

In the composition of this work I acknowledge with pleasure help received from translational work by Moravian Brethren also from Kleinschmidt’s grammar on the Greenland language. The latter having been ably translated by James L. Cotter, Esq. of Moose. But though receiving help from these means I in no wise wish to lay claim to perfection: six years’ residence amongst a strange people naturally gives but limited time to compose a thorough and exhaustive work on the language.

My motives in writing the following were simply these:

1. To collect any information I already possessed, so that it might prove useful to myself, and perhaps to others also.

2. An Eskimo grammar in the East Main dialect seemed needful. This, I have in some measure tried to supply.

Again, the Eskimos are as yet a benighted race living without “hope and without God in the World.” The isolated state of the people and the peculiar structure of their language are matters which do not tend to open a channel for their being taught the way of salvation. If the writer can only be the means of helping to remove one of these obstacles so that light may shine amidst this dark and much neglected race, he will be abundantly satisfied and rewarded.

Little Whale River,
January 7, 1883.

1

Orthography

In the Eskimo alphabet are the following letters a, b, d, e, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, and y: of these a, e, i, o, u, are vowels; the rest are consonants.

The sounds to be given to the vowels and diphthongs are as follows:

ā	as	a in fate
a	as	a in far
e	as	e in pen
ē	as	e in me
i	as	i in pin
ī	as	i in thine
o	as	o in not
ō	as	o in note
u	as	u in but
oo	as	oo in soon
ou	as	ou in sound
au	as	au in caught

There are peculiarities in the pronunciation of the Eskimo language which can only be learnt from the natives themselves. In the following pages we have tried to express the sounds as nearly as possible, but in some cases have failed to give the exact sounds required. The learner of language must mix freely with the people, and hear them speak. This plan, he will find, both sure and satisfactory.

The following are some of the sounds peculiar to the language.

The Eskimo tongue inclines to simplicity in syllable, but should any harshness arise letters are changed for the sake of euphony, e.g. killak, heaven killangmut, to heaven.

The accent often falls on the heavier syllables, viz. Those composed of three or four letters e.g. kanematyangelanga, — I do not know.

Etymology

The parts of speech may be classed as eight, the noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition and interjection. In the Eskimo tongue there are no articles but the numeral adjective “attausuk” is used for “A” and the demonstrative pronoun “tamna” for “the” e.g. attausuk innuk, one (man) Eskimo instead 2 of (a man) an Eskimo; tamna napparktok, that tree instead of the tree.

Of the Noun

The noun is a very important part of speech on account of the various affixes which may be attached to it. It is inflected for number, the cases (of which there are nine) express many of our prepositions, it also draws to itself possessive pronouns, and some adjectives. Nouns, which have possessive pronouns affixed have also a transitive and emphatic form, the former being used when the noun is the subject with a transitive verb. e.g. Goodipta nagligevategoot — our God (he) loves us; and the latter being used when the agent acts with or upon his own property e.g. — Goodib erninne nagligeva, God loves his own son. These points will be fully discussed in their proper place.

Gender

There is no form to express the gender in the Eskimo tongue; the sex being distinguished when necessary by naming the particular word for the sex required e.g. kingmuk angot, a dog; (lit. a man, male dog) kingmuk arngnak (lit. a woman, female dog.)

(Angot, a man, a male creature)

(Arngnak, a woman, a female creature)

Number

There are three numbers, the singular, the dual and the plural.

Nouns in the singular either end in a vowel or in the consonants K and T.

The dual always ends in K.

The Plural always ends in t.

Singular	Singular	Dual	Plural
Land	Noona	Noonak	Noonāt
Teacher	Arehoktueye	Arehoktueyēk	Arehoktueyēt
Seal hole	Aglo	Aglook	Aglooet
Walrus	Īvek	Īvēk	Īvēt
Boot	Kumik	Kumēk	Kumēt
Stone	Ooyarak	Ooyarak	Ooyarāt
Yellow berry	Akpik	Akpēk	Akpēt
Human Being, an Eskimo	Innuk	Innōk	Innooēt
Pillow	Akkit	Akketēk	Akketīt
Gun	Kokyoot	Kokyootēk	Kokyootīt

The following rules are to be borne in mind in the inflection of noun.

1. All nouns in the dual have their final vowels lengthened before the addition of the consonant, k.

2. Nouns the singular of which end in o, u, uk or ok have an additional vowel before they take their plural endings e.g.

Nouns the singular of which end in t always have the letter e inserted in the dual before they take their 3 final consonants. In the plural this inserted letter is sometimes changed into i. See the words akkit and kokyoot in examples.

4. Some nouns which we speak of as singular are never used in a singular form by the Eskimo, e.g. aglāt, books, noolooat, nets, instead of a book, a net.

5. Collective noun (add note in other copy.)

Cases of Noun

There are nine cases, viz. The Nominative, Vocative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Locative, Active, Ablative and Simulative.

The Nominative

The Nominative case when used with intransitive verbs takes its simplest form.

The Vocative

The Vocative singular always ends in k; the dual and plural are the same as the Nominative.

The Genitive

Simple nouns (those without affixes) only take the Genitive in the singular. The dual and plural being the same as the Nominative. The Genitive case is formed by the addition of ub, oob, or eoob, to the Nominative as,—

Noonaub	of a land
arehoktueoob	of a teacher, a teacher’s
Agloob	of a seal hole
Iveoob	of a walrus
kumeoob	of a boot
Ooyaraub	of a stone
Akpeoob	of a yellow berry
Innob	of a man
Akkiteoob	of a pillow
Kokyooteoob	of a gun.

The Genitive is also used when a noun in the singular is the agent with a transitive verb e.g.

The Dative

The Dative is used with the following meanings— to, with, into, for, by, on account of; e.g.

The Accusative

The Accusative is the same as the Nominative when used with transitive verbs, e.g. Innooēt kukkalat nagligevat, The Eskimo love Children, but when used with intransitive verbs the Accusative terminations 4 are added to the Nominative, as,

The Accusative is also used with the meaning of our word of, as, Goodemik toosalaukket? Hast thou heard of God?

The Locative

The Locative case is used as our prepositions, in, on, upon, e.g.

Some words which are used for the names of times and seasons such as okkeok, winter, aurak, summer; oonoak, night, do not take the locative case unless they are used in connection with (some) words of a similar nature and when special stress is laid upon it e.g. okkeome innooēt netsungnik pingashooakpoot, timaktauk innooēt tuktunik pingashooaktut aurame — in winter, the Eskimo work at (i.e. endeavor to catch) the seals, so also they work at (i.e. hunt) the deer in the summer.

The Active

The Active case is used with the meanings of our prepositions through, over, e.g.

Ablative Case

The Ablative case has the meaning of our preposition from, and the comparative particle than e.g.

Simulative Case

The Simulative case stands for our adverbial expressions like, in the same manner e.g.

On the Declension of Nouns

Singular

Nouns ending in a vowel have their cases added to the vowel, as noona, land; noonamut, to a land. Nouns ending in a consonant generally change their consonants into ng. The cases are then added thereto e.g. innuk, a man; innungmut, to a man; ooyarak, a stone, ooyarangmik, a stone (Acc’ve).

Dual

In the Dual the letter K in the Dative, Accusative, Locative, and Ablative cases is always 5 changed into ng. and the letter N takes the place of m e.g. Noonangnut, to two lands. In the Active and Simulative cases the final consonant k is retained and the cases are added to it, e.g. noonakut, through two lands; noonaktoot, like two lands.

Plural

The letter n is the plural sign in the Dative, Accusative, Locative and Ablative cases e.g. Arehoktueyenik, teachers, (acc’e) aglone, by, at seal holes. Some nouns take an additional letter before taking their cases, as, noonannut, to lands &c. The Active and Simulative cases are formed by inserting the syllable te before their final additions, and in the active case the letter k is changed into g., e.g. illuverktegoot, through graves; illuverktetoot, like graves.

Two Declensions

Nouns may be divided into two declensions. The first, the singular of which ends in a vowel and the second those ending in a consonant.

First Declension

Noona — A Land.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
N.	Noona, a land	Noonāk, two lands	Noonāt, lands
V.	Noonak! O Land	Noonāk, O! two Lands	Noonāt, O Lands
G.	Noonaub, of a land	Noonāk, of two lands	Noonāt, of lands
D.	Noonamut, to a land	Noonāngmut, to two lands	Noonannut, to lands
A.	Noonamik, a land	Noonāngnik, two lands	Noonannik, lands
L.	Nooname, in a land	Noonāngne, in two lands	Noonanne, in lands
Act.	Noonakut, through a land	Noonākkut, through two lands	Noonategoot, through lands.
Ab.	Noonamit, From a land	Noonāngnit, from two lands	Noonannit, from lands.
Sim.	Noonatut, like a land	Noonāktut, like two lands	Noonatetut, like lands.

Second Declension

	Singular	Dual	Plural
N.	Innuk, An Eskimo	Innōk, Two Eskimo	Innooēt, Eskimo
V.	Innuk! O! Eskimo	Innōk! O! Two Eskimo	Innooēt O! Eskimo
G.	Innob, of an Eskimo	Innōk of two Eskimo	Innooēt of Eskimo
D.	Innungmut, to an Eskimo	Innōngmut to two Eskimo	Innungnut to Eskimo
A.	Innungmik	Innōngnik, two Eskimo	Innungnik, Eskimo
L.	Innungme in, by, an Eskimo.	Innōngne, in two Eskimo	Innongne in Eskimo
Act.	Innukkut through an Eskimo	Innōkkut, through two Eskimo	Innuktegoot through Eskimo
Abl.	Innungmit, from an Eskimo	Innōngnit, from two Eskimo	Innungnit, from Eskimo
Sim.	Innuktoot, like an Eskimo	Innōktoot, like two Eskimo	Innuktetoot like Eskimo

There are some exceptions to the above especially in nouns ending in ak and ok. These drop their final consonants, and are declined as nouns in the first declension e.g.

(Note regarding our article, the -a-)

6

Noun Affixes

Nouns of different kinds have different terminations. These terminations partake of the nature of nouns and adjectives as—

Meok, inhabitant;

Vik, the time or place (of action) as

Venuk, meat, as

Avenuk, skin, as,

lik, possessor of, as

Kut, family, relatives of person named, as

Ut or yoot cause, means, instrument for action,

Sak, material for future article, as,

Katte, a companion, as

Nek, is the termination of abstract nouns, as

rēk, denotes the relation of persons named, as

Affixes Partaking of the Nature of Adjectives.

Seak, beautiful, as

Rak, great, very, as

Aluk, very large, largest size, as

Raluk, small, as

Atraluk, very small, extremely small, as

Marik, full grown, able bodied, as

Tokak, old, as

Tākkamik, new, as

Tuenak, only such a thing, nothing else but such a thing, as

Tuak, an only one, as

Kasak, almost such a thing, almost like such a thing, as,

7

Many nominal particles are also used in much the same manner as those already given, e.g.

See the Adjective and Participles.

Of the Pronouns

The Personal

The Personal Pronouns are:—

Singular		Dual		Plural
Oovoonga	I	Oovagook	we two	Oovagoot	we
Igvit	thou	Illiptik	you two	Illipse	you
Oona	he	Tapkoa,	they two	Tapkoa	they

N.B. Oona and Tapkoa are demonstrative pronouns, but they are also used as personal. It will be wise to learn them with the Demonstrative pronouns on account of their similarity of declension.

On the Cases of Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns take cases similar to the noun but with a more limited signification. There are also no vocative or genitive cases used with this part of speech.

The Nominative

The Nominative case is sometimes used in connection with a verb to point out in an emphatic manner the agent used, e.g. Oovoonga, toosakpoonga, I, I hear. It also has the meaning of the possessive pronoun mine, e.g. kenaub aglanget? whose books? (are these) Oovoonga, mine.

The Dative Case

This case is heard with the following meanings, by, to e.g. oovumnut kilekkok, he is coming to me; okautyauyok oovumnut, one who is told, spoken to by me.

The Accusative Case

Ikkaruktok oovumnik, he helps me (lit, he who helps me)

The Locative Case

Aglatit nauk? Where are thy books? oovumne, by, at me.

The Active Case

Oovapkut ikkaruktauneakkok (or p), he will be helped through me.

The Ablative Case

Toosalaukkok (or p) oovumnit, he heard from me.

The Simulative Case

Oovaptoot pingashooarit, Work thou like me.

8

Declension of Personal Pronouns

N.	Oovoonga, I, mine,	Igvit, thou, thine,	Oona, He
G.			Ooma, of him, his
D.	Oovumnut, to me,	Illingnut, to thee,	Omunga, to him
A.	Oovumnik, me	Illingnik thee	Ōminga, him
I.	Oovumne, in me	Illingne, in thee	Ōmane, in him
Act.	Oovapkut, through me	Illipkit, through thee	Ōmoona, through him.
Abl.	Oovumnit, from me	Illingnit, from me,	Ōmungat, from him
Sim.	Oovaptoot, like me	Illiktoot, like me,	Ōmatoot, like him
		Dual
N.		Illiptik You two
D.		Illiptingnut to you two
A.		Illiptingnik you two
L.		Illiptingne in you two
Act.		Illiptegoot through you two
Abl.		Illiptingnit from you two
Sim.		Illiptetoot like you two
	Plural
N.	Oovagoot we.	Illipse you,	tapkoa, they
D.	Oovaptingnut to us	Illipsingnut to you,	tapkonunga, to them
A.	Oovaptingnik us,	Illipsingnik, you	tapkoninga, them
L.	Oovaptingne, in us,	Illipsingne, In you,	tapkonanne, in them
Act.	Oovaptegoot through us.	Illipsegoot, through you,	tapkonoona, through them
Abl.	Oovaptingnit, from us.	Illipsingnit, from you	tapkonungat from them.
Sim.	Oovaptetoot like us,	Illipsetoot, like you,	Tapkoatetoot, like them

Possessive Pronouns

The Possessive Pronouns (which are perhaps contractions of the personal pronouns) are affixed to the nouns to which they belong, as—

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonaga, my land	Noonāka, my two lands	Noonakka, my lands
Noonāt thy land	Noonākik, thy two lands	Noonatit, thy lands
Noonanga, his land	Noonāgik, his two lands	Noonanget, his lands
Noonavook, our (2) land	Noonākpook, our (2) two lands	Noonavoot, our two lands
Noonavoot, our land	Noonavook, our two lands	Noonavoot, our lands
Noonatik, your (2) land	Noonātik, your (2) two lands	Noonattit, your two lands.
Noonase, your land	Noonatik, your two lands	Noonase, your lands
Noonagik, their (2) land	Noonangāk, their two lands	Noonangāk, their two lands
Noonangāt, their land	Noonangāk, their two lands	Noonanget, their lands.

Variations are found in nouns the singular of which end in ek, as,

these take ra instead of ga, but only when the possessive affix for my is used, e.g.

Nouns ending in t as kokyoot, a gun; take an additional letter viz. e before the affixes are attached as,

9

On the Cases of Possessive Pronouns

The Possessive Pronoun takes cases with meanings similar to those which are attached to the noun and personal pronouns.

The Nominative

This is the simplest form of possessive pronoun. See opposite page.

The Genitive

This points out the Genitive relation, and is used in cases where we in written discourse should use the apostrophe e.g.

Should three nouns be in use with which we should use two apostrophes then there must be changes in two of the nouns to point out their genitive relation e.g.

The Genitive case is not only used to point out the Possessive formation, but it is also used with transitive verbs to point out the agent e.g. Goodipta naglige­vātegoot Our God (he) loves us.

In a sentence where two nouns are used with a transitive verb, one being used as possessor and the other as agent, then one noun is changed to point out its possessive relation, and the other to mark it as the agent, e.g. ernipse panningeta nagligevātegoot, your son’s daughter (she) loves us.

In a sentence where three nouns are used with a transitive verb, two being possessors and the other the agent, then two of the nouns must take the genitive form, and the other must be treated in a similar manner to mark it as the agent e.g. Johnasib erningeta panningeta, John’s son’s daughter (she) loves us.

The Genitive Case Declined

Singular.	Dual	Plural
Ernema of my son	Ernēngma, of my two sons	Ernema, of my sons
Ernepit of thy son	Ernēkpit, of thy two sons	Ernepit, of thy sons
Erningeta, of his son	Ernegēkta, of his 2 sons	Erningeta, of his sons
Ernipta, of our son	Ernēpta, of our 2 sons	Ernipta, of our sons
Erniptik, of your two sons.	Ernēptik, of your 2 sons	Erniptik, of your 2 sons
Ernipse, of your son	Ernēpse, of your 2 sons	Ernipse of your sons
Erningeta, of their	Ernegēkta, of their 2 sons.	Erningeta, of their sons.

10

The Dative Case Declined

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonamnut, To my land	Noonāmnut to my 2 lands	Noonamnut to my lands.
Noonangnut to thy land	Noonāngnut to thy 2 lands	Noonangnut to thy lands
Noonanganut to his land	Noonagingnut to his 2 lands	Noonangenut to his lands
*Noonaptingnut to our land	Noonāptingnut to our 2 lands	Noonaptingnut to our land
Noonapsingnut to your land	Noonāpsingnut to your 2 lands	Noonapsingnut to your lands
Noonangānut to their land	(Doubtful)	Noonangenut to their lands

Nouns ending in e, ek, ik, or oot, take their dative cases as follows:—

Of the Accusative, Locative and Ablative cases

These cases are formed as the Dative, e.g.

Locative

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonamne, in my land	Noonāmne, in my 2 lands	Noonamne in my lands
Noonangne, in thy land	Noonāngne, in thy 2 lands	Noonangne, in thy lands
Noonangane, in his land	Noonāgingne, in his 2 lands	Noonangene, in his lands

Accusative

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonamnik, my land	Noonāmnik, my two lands.	Noonamnik, my lands
Noonangnik thy land	Noonāngnik, thy 2 lands	Noonangnik, thy lands
Noonanganik, his land	Noonāgingnik, his 2 lands	Noonangenik, his lands

Ablative

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonamnit, from my land	Noonāmnit, from my 2 lands.	Noonamnit from my lands
Noonangnit, from thy land	Noonāngnit, from thy 2 lands	Noonangnit from thy lands
Noonanganit, from his land	Noonāgingnit, from his 2 lands	Noonangenit, from his lands

Of the Active Case

This case differs from the Dative, Accusative, Locative, and Ablative cases in the following ways—

In the first and second persons pkut is added to the noun instead of mnut as in the Dative Case.

In the first and second persons plural the active sign viz. goot is attached without the addition of the letters ng as in the words noonapsingnut and noonaptingnut.

In the third persons dual and plural the particle te is inserted before goot.

Active Case Declined

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonapkut, through my land	Noonāpkut, through my 2 Lands	Noonapkut, through my lands.
Noonapkut, through my land,	Noonāpkut, through thy 2 lands	Noonapkut through thy lands.
11 Noonangagoot, through his land	Noonāgiktegoot, Through his 2 lands.	Noonangetegoot, through his lands.
Noonaptegoot, through our land	Noonāptegoot, through our two lands	Noonaptegoot, through our lands.
Noonapsegoot, through your land	Noonāpsegoot, through your two lands	Noonapsegoot, through your lands
Noonangāgoot, through their land	Noonangātegoot, through their two lands	Noonangetegoot, (through their lands)

The Simulative Case

This case is formed like the Active e.g.

Singular	Dual	Plural
Noonaptoot, like my land	Noonāptoot, like my two lands,	Noonaptoot, like my lands
Noonaptoot, like thy land	Noonāptoot, like thy two lands.	Noonaptoot, like thy lands.
Noonangatoot, like his land	Noonagiktetoot, like his two lands	Noonangetetoot, like his lands.

The following is an example of possessive pronoun declined in all cases in the first person singular.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
R.	Noonaga, my land	Noonāka, my two lands	Noonakka, my lands
G.	Noonama, of my land	Noonāngma, of two lands	Noonama, of my lands
D.	Noonamnut to my land	Noonāmnut to two lands	Noonamnut to my lands
A.	Noonamnik my land	Noonāmnik my two lands	Noonamnik my lands
Loc.	Noonamne in my land	Noonāmne in my two lands	Noonamne, in my lands
Acc.	Noonapkut, through my land	Noonāpkut, through my two lands,	Noonapkut through my lands.
Abl.	Noonamnit, from my land	Noonāmnit, from my two lands.	Noonapnit, from my lands
Sim.	Noonaptoot, like my land	Noonāptoot, like my 2 lands.	Noonaptoot, like my lands.

Examples

Reflective Possessive

This form is used when the agent acts with or upon his own property, e.g. erninne nagligeva, he loves his own son. Should the ordinary possessive form be used an Eskimo would understand the agent to act with the property of another person e.g. erninga nagligeva, he loves his son, viz. not his own son but the son of some other person.

N.B. This form is only used in the third person.

The Reflective Possessive Form Declined

	Singular	Dual	Plural
N.	Ernine, His own son	Ernēngne, his own 2 sons	Erninne, his own sons
G.	Erneme, of his own son	Ernēngme, of his own 2 sons	Erneme, of his own sons
D.	Ernimenut to his own son	Ernēngmenut to his own 2 sons	Ernimenut to his own sons
12 A.	Ernimenik, his own son	Ernēngmenik, his own two sons.	Ernimenik, his own sons
L.	Ernimene, in his own son	Ernēngmene, in his own 2 sons	Ernimene, in his own sons
Act.	Ernimegoot, through his own son	Ernēngmegoot, through his own two sons	Ernimetegoot, through his own sons
Abl.	Ernimenit, from his own son	Ernēngmenit, from his own two sons	Ernimenit, from his own sons
Sim.	Ernimetoot, like his own son	(Doubtful)	Ernimetetoot, like his own sons

Examples.

Compound Personal Pronouns

These are—1st—

Oovumnik	myself	oovaptingnik	ourselves
Illingnik	thyself	Illipsingnik	yourselves
Ingmenik	himself,	Ingmingnik	themselves

Of these Ingmenik is sometimes heard with cases, as ingmenut to himself &c. The Plural ingmingnik is seldom used, ingmenik being used instead. The remainder are the accusative cases of personal pronouns.

2nd. Nangmenuk, self, own, this is but seldom heard but when used it generally takes the same formation as possessive pronoun e.g.

3rd. Kisseane, alone. This is sometimes used with the sense of a pronoun, but more often with adverbial meaning and as adverb. It takes the following form—this will be fully discussed in its proper place (see adverb).

Kisseane,	Alone
Kissema	I alone
Kissevēt	thou alone
Kisseme	he alone
Kissipta	we alone
Kissipse	you alone
kissemik	they alone

Demonstrative Pronouns

These are—

Besides these there are others which are used when the object or objects are invisible, or at some particular distance or place, as,

Imna	That one in the distance but still visible
Ipkoa	Those in the distance but still visible
Timna	That one invisible
Tipkoa	those invisible
13 Muna	This one here (close at hand) if on some particular place
Tamunna	This one here, quite here, this.
Kuna,	That one below
Pangna	That one in the west, above, up there westward.
tingna,	that one in the east, below.

On the Cases of Demonstrative Pronouns

(Takkumna, he that inside; kingna, that one outside.)

The Demonstrative Pronouns are declined in a somewhat different manner to the other parts of speech already treated of. They have no genitive cases in the plural.

Demonstrative Pronouns Declined

N.	Oona,	This, he	Tamna,	that, that one
G.	Ōma,	this one’s, his	Tapsoma,	of that, of that one
D.	Omunga,	to this, to him	Tapsomunga,	to that, to that one
A.	Ominga,	this, him.	Tapsominga,	that, that one,
I.	Ōmane,	in this, in him	Tapsomane,	in that, in that one
Act.	Omoona,	through this, through him.	Tapsomoona,	through that, through that one.
Ab.	Ōmungat,	from this, from him.	Tapsomungat,	from that, from that one
Sim.	Ōmatoot,	like this, like him.	Tapsomatoot,	like that, like that one.

Dual

Ookkoa is the only dual form. It is used in the Nominative case for either dual or plural.

It is declined as follows:—

N.	Ookkoa	these or these two
D.	Ookungnunga	to these two
A.	Ookungninga	these two
I.	Ookungnangne,	in, by these two
Act.	Ookungnoona,	through these two
Abl.	Ookungnungat,	from these two
Sim.	Ookkotetunak

	Plural
N.	Ookkoa	these	Tapkoa	Those
D.	Ookkununga	to these	Tapkonunga	to those
A.	Ookkuninga	these	Tapkoninga	those
L.	Ookkunane,	in these	Tapkonanne	in those
Act.	Ookkunoona	through these	Tapkonoona	through those
Abl.	Ookkunungat	from these	Tapkonungat	from those
			c.s. tapkoatetunak
Sim.	Doubtful		Tapkoatetoot,	like those

The Genitive Cases in timna, imna, muna and kuna are formed as follows

Tīmna	that one invisible	Tīpsoma	of that one invisible
Imna	That one in the distance	Ipsoma	of that one in the distance
Muna	This one here	Muttoma	Of this one here
Kuna	That one below	Kuttoma	of that one below

These together with the plural forms ipkoa and tipkoa are declined in just the same manner as tamna and ookkoa e.g.

N.	Tīmna	That one invisible
G.	Tīpsoma	of that one invisible
D.	Tīpsomunga	to that one invisible
14 A.	Tīpsominga	That one invisible
L.	*Tipsomane	in, by that one invisible
Act.	Tipsomoona	Through that one invisible
Abl.	Tipsomungat	from that one invisible
Sim.	Tipsomatoot	Like that one invisible
	Plural
N.	Tīpkoa	Those invisible
D.	Tīpkonunga	to those invisible
A.	Tīpkoninga	those invisible
L.	Tīpkonane	in those invisible
Act.	Tīpkonoona	through those invisible
Abl.	Tipkonungat	from those invisible
Sim.	Tipkoatetoot	like those invisible

* Tipsomane is also used with the meaning in, that time, then at that time, that time.

Examples

Relative Pronouns

There are no separate words with meanings quite similar to our relative pronouns, but the Nominal, Active and Passive participles supply their place e.g.

In the above examples the words kannemarok, he who is sick, nagvaktok, he who finds &c. supply the place of our relative pronouns who and that, while the passive participles attokputara and kilauktanga supply the place of our relative pronoun which. See participles.

Interrogative Pronouns

These are—

	Sing.		Dual	Plural
	Kēna?	Who?	Kikook	Kikoot
Baffin Land Dialect	kishyoomik	What	Kishoot	Kishoot
Hudson Bay Dialect	Soona?	What	(Soonak	Soonat)
		Which? (one of two)	Nedleak	Nedleēt

Of these only nedleak is declined in the dual.

Interrogative Pronouns Declined

	Singular		Plural
N.	Kena	who?	*Kikoot?	Who?
c.s.	Kea
G.	Kenaub	of whom	Kikoot	of whom
D.	Kenamut	to whom	Kikoonut	to whom
A.	Kenamik	whom	Kikoonik	whom
L.	Kename	in whom	Kikoone	in whom
Act.	Kenakut	through whom	doubtful kekootegoot
Abl.	Kenamit	from whom	kikoonit	from whom
Sim.	Kenatoot	like whom	kikootetoot	like whom

* also used in the sense of company, party, especially when used as an affix to names of persons, e.g. Johanasekut, the family, party of John.

Kena is also verbalized. On account of its frequent use it is inserted here.

15

Singular
kenauvoongā	who am I?
kenauvēt	who art thou?
Kenauvā	who is he?
Dual
kenauvēnook?	who are we two?
kenauvētik	who are you two?
kenauvāk	who are they two?
Plural
kenauvētā	who are we?
kenauvēse	who are you?
kenauvāt	who are they?

	Hudson Bay	Baffin Land
N.	Soona?	(kishyoo)	What?
G.	Soonaub		of what
D.	Soonamut	(kishyumut)	to what
A.	Soonamik		what
L.	Sooname		in what
Act.	Soonakut		through what
Abl.	Soonamit		from what
Sim.	Soonatoot		like what

Kena and soona are often used with the Demonstrative pronoun oona attached e.g.

Nedleak? and nedleēt are declined as follows

	Dual		Plural
N.	Nedleak?	Which? (one of two)	Nedleēt	which one? (of several)
G.	Nedleak	of which?	Nedleēta	of which
D.	Nedleanut	to which	Nedlengenut	to which
A.	Nedleanik	which	Nedlengenik	which
L.	Nedleane	in which	Nedlengene	in which
Act.	Nedleagoot	through which	Nedlengetegoot	through which
Abl.	Nedleanit	from which	Nedlengenit	from which
Sim.	Nedleatoot	like which	Nedlengetetoot	like which

They have also forms for the first and second persons plural. In these persons they are declined as Possessive Pronouns, e.g.

Examples

Distributive Pronouns

These are—

attoonēt, each one, every one by himself, as attoonet attelēt, each one by himself has a name (i.e. each person has a separate name, is named different).

nedleak, one of two; nedleēt one of several, these with their changes are used for distributive as well as interrogative pronouns e.g.

Tamat, every, e.g. ooblo tamat, every day.

The Distributive Pronoun either is expressed by the particle lonēt affixed to the words in question e.g. igvelonēt oovoongalonēt, either I or thou.

16

Indefinite Pronouns

These are—

	Hudson Bay	Baffin Land
	Soona	(kishu)	something	Point out cases as in interrogative form.
	Soonamik	(kishumik)	do.
	Illunga		some, a part (only one)
	Illagek		do. dual
	Illunget		do. plural
	Oonooktoot		many, used in Labrador & N.E. shore of Hudsons Bay, amashut, being used in Cumberland Sound
	Oonooktoonik		many (Acc’ve)
	Ikkittoot	(Innusuktut)	few	amashungetut often heard
	Ikkittoonik	(Innesaktunik)	Few (acc.)
	Tamungmik		adjective quantity
		(Illoonatik)	All	Tamungmik
	Illoonīnik		All	Tamānik
	(treat with adverb) or it may be used as Adjective as a similar person & point out other cases (adverb).
	Imāttomik		such an one, a similar one
	Imāttoonik		such things, like things
	Tamungmik	tamamnook	both	(can be used as Adverb)
	Asseanik		another, other, a different one.
	(Ipunga		another) its other
	(Ipunganik		another) (acc.)
	(Amashoot		A lot, great number, heap, crowd)
	Amashoonik		A lot, heap, crowd (Acc.)
	Soonatuenangmik		anything (all the same what it is) Acc.
C.S.	Soonatuenennik		Sundry things (Acc.)
Adj.	Soonatuenāt		Sundry things (nom.)
		(tamungmik)

Illoonatik, Ipunga, and Asseanik are declined.

Illoonatik takes the following form in the first and second persons.

N.	Illoonata	we all	Illoonase	you all
G.	Illoonapta	of us all	Illoonapse	of you all
D.	Illoonaptingnut	to us all	Illoonapsingnut	to you all
A.	Illoonaptingmik	us all	Illoonapsingnik	you all
L.	Illoonaptingne	in us all	Illoonapsingne,	in you all
Act.	Illoonaptegoot	through us all	Illoonapsegoot	through you all
Abl.	Illoonaptingnit	from us all	Illoonapsingnit	from you all
Sim.	Illoonaptetoot	like us all	Illoonapsetoot	like you all

Īpunga means literally his other and is declined as possessive pronoun in the third person singular as,

N.	Īpunga	Another
G.	Īpungata	of another
L.	Īpunganut	to another
A.	Īpunganik	another
L.	Īpungane	in another
Act.	Īpungagoot	through another
Abl.	Īpunganit	from another
Sim.	Īpungatoot	like another

Asseanik is declined in all persons like the Possessive Pronoun, e.g.

assega	my other
assēt	thy other
assea	his other
assinga	his other
assevoot	our other or others
assinget	their others
assema	of my other
assimnut	to my other
asseanut or assingenut	to his other &c.

(Point out how Eskimo always use his other &c. where we should simply say another.) Illunga is sometimes used as follows: illungenut to some of them, illungenit, from some of them, illategoot, some of us. The others can also take cases when necessary e.g. īmāttonut, with such an one, amashoonut, to a lot, with a lot &c.

17

Examples

Of the Adjective

Adjectives of quality are expressed as follows:—

1st. some are separable as,

2nd. Some are expressed by particles affixed to the nouns they qualify as,

See the terminations of noun.

3rd. Many adjectives are formed from verbs, as

4th. Some nouns which we should qualify by using adjectives are in the Eskimo tongue entirely changed e.g.

Comparison of Adjectives

The comparative is formed by adding the particle neksak to the root of the positive, as

The Superlative is formed by adding the particle nekpāk to the root of the positive, as

Adjectives of this class are also verbalized e.g.

Examples

Numeral Adjectives

The Eskimo have names for the numbers to five only; beyond that they use a system of addition and multiplication which is cumbrous to an extreme, and little adapted for large numbers. This system is only used or understood by the most intelligent, many of the Eskimo seeming to have but little idea of numbers above twenty or forty. These remarks of course, apply to the Eskimo living on the Eastern shores of Hudson Bay and also those of Baffin Land.

The numeral adjectives are —

Attausuk	One
Maggook	Two
Pingashoot	three
sittamut	four
tedlemut	five
18 pingashoorooktoot or ikkaktoot (arkvenelēt in Baffin Land)	Six	3×2
pingashoorooktoot attausuglo	seven	3×2 + 1
Sittamaurooktoot (tedlemaurooktoot)	eight	4×2
Tedlemulo sittamulo or sittamaurooktoolo attausuglo	nine	5 + 4 or 4×2 + 1
tedlemaurooktoot	ten	5×2
tedlemaurooktoot attausuglo	eleven	5×2 + 1
tedlemaurooktoot maggooglo	twelve	5×2 + 2
tedlemaurooktoot pingashoolo	thirteen	5×2 + 3
tedlemaurooktoot sittamulo	fourteen	5×2 + 4
tedlemaurooktoot tedlemulo	fifteen	5×2 + 5
tedlemaurooktoot pingashoorooktoolo	sixteen	5×2 + 3×2
tedlemaurooktoot pingashoorooktoot attausuglo	seventeen	5×2 + 3×2 + 1
tedlemaurooktoolo sittamaurooktoolo	eighteen	5×2 + 4×2
avatoongegaktoot or tedlemaurooktoolo sittamaurooktoolo attausuglo	twenty	20 - 1 or 5×2 + 4×2 + 1

Avatit means the outer members or the body, the toes and fingers. Even numbers of twenty such as forty, sixty &c. are expressed by naming the number of persons (Eskimo’s toes and fingers) as will make the number required. The numbers already given, that is from one to twenty are used when necessary to express any numbers coming between e.g.

The numbers forty, sixty, eighty and one hundred can also be expressed by the following combinations.

Avate maggooēt	forty
Avate pingashooēt	sixty
Avate sittamāt	eighty
Avate tedlemāt	one hundred

The Ordinals

Sivordluk	the first
Ipunga	the second
pingarooāt	the third
sittamungāt	the fourth
tedlemungāt	the fifth
pingashoorooktoongāt	the sixth
maggoongnut ikaktoongāt	the seventh
sittamaurooktoongāt	the eighth
tedlemaurooktoongāt	the tenth

Numeral Adverbs

Attauseaksune	Once
maggooaktaksune	twice
pingashooaktaksune	thrice
sittsumauerksune	four times
tedlemauerksune	five times
arkvineleraksune	six times
maggoongnut ikaksune	seven times
sittamaurooktooerksune	eight times
tedlemulo sittamuloerksune	nine times
tedlemaurooktooerksune	ten times.

Numeral adjectives are also verbalized, as,

Attauseōvok	It is one
maggōvook	they are two
pingashōvoot	they are three
sittamauvoot	they are four
tedlemauvoot	they are five

19

Names of fingers are used in counting especially in games used by children and also by adults.

The Verb

The verb may be almost called the language. Not only does it draw to itself the agent and object, but it can express through various particles a sentence which in the English tongue could only be expressed by four, eight or ten words. These particles partake of the nature of adjectives, adverbs &c. and are embodied in the verb, while conjunctions &c. are affixed; thus a word may be formed of a length truly astonishing. To verbs belong voice, mood, tense, number and person. Verbs have two voices, the active and passive.

Moods of the Verb

Verbs have five moods, the indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive and infinitive.

Indicative

The Indicative simply declares or affirms as goodib nagligevātegoot, God loves us.

Interrogative

The Interrogative is used in asking a direct or indirect question, as

Imperative

The Imperative commands, exhorts, entreats and in the first and second persons desires, as,

Subjunctive

The Subjunctive Mood is used in the following ways.

1st. When a condition or uncertainty is expressed; as,

2nd. Where the person addressed can form some idea of what the speaker wants or means without the use of the principal verb e.g.

3rd. This mood has also a relative form which is used when there are two verbs in a sentence (one being in the subjunctive and the other in the indicative Mood) and when the agent in both verbs is the same e.g. netsuk innungmik tekkogame, akkakpok, when the seal sees the man, he (the seal) dives, goes under water. On the other hand the ordinary form is used when the agent in one verb is different from the agent in the other e.g. innooēt tikkepetta tekkoneakkavoot if the Eskimo arrive, we shall see them.

The same formation takes place should there be three or more verbs in use, as—

20

Relative Form

Innooēt Jesusemut sagealeroonik arongnimenik omisuleroonik peuleyouneaktoogelloat, If the Eskimo turn to Jesus, if they hate their sins, indeed they will be saved.

General Form

Innooēt nootamik innonashooakpetta okpemarelekpetta nakoreneakkite Jesuseoob. If the Eskimo endeavor to live new lives, if they believe completely Jesus will be pleased with them.

The relative form is also used in the following manner; tikkelauramik tokkovok, when they arrived, he died. viz. one of the comers. Here the person who died being one of the comers, the relative form is used to point out this connection.

Infinitive

The Infinitive is of much more extensive use in the Eskimo than in the English tongue. It not only expresses the action in a general manner, but it takes the place of our participles. There are also other ways of using this mood, e.g.

1st. As the participle—

2nd. To express our words while, wishing &c. This is done by inserting particles in the infinitive verb, as

tid, while, Jesuse kikkeaktok taulaukkok omatidlugo, Jesus was crucified while he was alive.

Yomav, wishing, desiring, Jesuse sillakroarmut tikkelaukpok innooet pivloogit peuleyomavlugit. Jesus came to the world for the Eskimo sakes wishing to save them.

kov that (it) might, that (he) might, that (we) may, as

The particle kov changed into kon is also used with the negative form of infinitive verb with the following meaning.

3rd. For my sake, for thy sake &c. is expressed by the infinitive of the verb pevok or its transitive form peva, as,

Sing.
Pivloonga	for my sake
pivlutit	for thy sake
pivlugo	for his sake
Dual
pivloonook	for our two
pivlutik	for your two
pivlugik	for their two
Plural
pivloota	for our
pivluse	for your
pivlugit	for their

4th. As an adverb of quality or manner, as soolivlune ohakpok he speaks truly; tuaverglune pissukpok, he walks quickly &c.

21

The Infinitive can also be used for our word before and negatively for while not, not wishing, that it might not, and also with negative adverbial meaning.

Of the Participles

There are two participles of most frequent use in the Eskimo tongue, viz. The Nominal and the Passive.

The Nominal Participle

1st. This participle may be formed from intransitive verbs by omitting the letters p and v and inserting t for the former and y for the latter e.g.

Some verbs ending in vok take rok instead of yok e.g.

2nd. It is often heard in place of a verb e.g. tikkeneaktoot they who will arrive, instead of tikkeneakkoot, they will arrive. When used in this manner it can be used in all persons and is declined as an intransitive verb e.g.

Sing.
Toosaktoonga	I who hear
Toosaktotit	thou who hearest
Toosaktok	he who hears
Dual
Toosaktogook	we two who hear
Toosaktotik	you two who hear
Toosaktook	they two who hear
Plural
Toosaktogoot	we who hear
Toosaktose	you who hear
Toosaktoot	they who hear

3rd. It is often used as a noun, e.g. tigliktok, a thief; saglurok, a liar. When used in this manner they take cases like nouns of the first declension. e.g. tigliktomik a thief (acc) tigliktomut to a thief; sagluromit, from a liar. The Accusative cases of nouns formed in this manner are sometimes used as adverbs as,

Passive Participle

This participle is derived from transitive verbs, and verbalized nouns which denote the acquisition of animals &c. e.g.

This participle takes affixes like the possessive pronoun e.g.

It is often used in this manner and takes the place of a transitive verb. e.g.

N.B. Both the nominal and passive participles may be used to supply the place of the relative pronouns, as,

22

Of Tense

Time is expressed in the Eskimo tongue by the insertion of participles, which correspond in some measure to our Auxiliary verbs. e.g.

Present

Past

Perfect

Future

Besides these there are others which are used in a more extensive manner like our compound tenses, as,

Present Progressive

Past Progressive

Past Indefinite

Future Definite

Future Progressive

* This is only used in the third persons.

Remarks

Both the past and future may be used in a definite or indefinite manner, as,

The past indefinite is used when the action occurred some considerable time ago, and when no particular period of time is mentioned, as Jesuse illineaktimenut okalungnekkok, Jesus said to his disciples.

The future forms tikkeyomākkok and tikkelākkok are strictly speaking variations of future time or conditional future tenses. The particle Yomāk being used for time well in futurity, while the particle lāk is generally applied to time some little period in advance e.g.

The particle yomāk is also used in an indefinite manner, without any relation to time, as

The Eskimo do not invariably use the past and perfect tenses. In narration the present is sometimes used for the past especially if the time may be understood by the context. Again, past time may be expressed by words quite peculiar to the language, e.g. tikketivenuk, something which arrived formerly, someone who arrived; instead of tikkelaukkok, he arrived; Jesusib sillakroarmēnimene, in Jesus’ own time of being in the world, instead of when Jesus was in the world.

The perfect is also sometimes omitted and the present used instead especially in cases where the action has recently been accomplished, as tikkepok, he arrives instead of tikkesimavok, he has arrived.

23

The Potential Particle is ongnak sometimes yongnak as attuarkseongnakket? Art thou able to read?

Yoma or roma is the optative particle as,

Of the Verb “To Be”.

The verbal idea of being, existence &c. is expressed in the following ways.—

1st. In its simplest form it is expressed by the verb ēpok he is. This may be declined like any intransitive verb, but in reality is not often heard.

2nd. Ōvok sometimes uvok is attached to nouns to express their state of being e.g.

3rd. The verbal termination pok attached to the locative cases of nouns (also) personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns denote the place, location of persons or things in question e.g.

4th. Hakpok (or k) denotes that there is such a person or thing e.g.

This particle also denotes the possession of article in question, and stands in that sense for our words has, possesses, e.g.

5th. Impersonal verbs expressing states of weather are expressed by verbal terminations, as

Of Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs are those in which the action of the verb is confined to the subject, or is not regarded as going beyond the subject, as, sinnikpok, he sleeps.

Many intransitive verbs may be changed into transitive by changing pok into pa, and vok into va, as

Intransitive verbs may be divided into two conjugations, the first, the inflection of which ends in a consonant and the second in a vowel, as, (give also the root letter, i.e. k̄, k, e, and a, as okakpok, mallikpok, tikkepok and sennavok.)

24 1st Conjugation.	Ohakpok	he speaks
	pissukpok	he walks
	eyokpok	he laughs
2nd Conjugation.	Nerrevok	he eats
	kauremavok	he knows
	issumavok	he thinks

In the first conjugation the first and second persons are formed by dropping the final letter k, and then affixing contracted forms of personal pronouns as,

Personal Pronouns		Singular
Oovoonga,	I	Ohakpoonga	I speak
Igvit	thou	Ohakpotit	thou speakest
		Ohakpok	he speaks
		Dual
Oovagook	we two	Ohakpogoot	we two speak
Illiptik	you two	Ohakpotik	you two speak
		Ohakpook	they two speak
		Plural
Oovagoot	we	Ohakpogoot	we speak
Illipse	you	ohakpose	you speak
		ohakpoot	they speak

In the second conjugation the first and second persons are formed in the same manner as the above as,

Singular
Nerrevoonga	I eat
nerrevotit	thou eatest
nerrevok	he eats
Dual
nerrevogook	we two eat
nerrevotik	you two eat
nerrevook	they two eat
Plural
nerrevogoot	we eat
nerrevose	you eat
nerrevoot	they eat

On The Formation of the Subjunctive Mood

First Conjugation

Verbs of the first conjugation are formed by dropping the final consonant of their roots; two particles viz. ra and roo are then affixed, ra being used with the meaning of our words when, because, that and for, and roo for if. These particles are not retained in the third persons. To ra and roo are also added the genitive terminations of possessive pronouns e.g.

Genitive case of Possessive Pronoun.		Sing.
Of my son	Ernema	Okarama	When I speak
of my son	Ernepit	Okaravit	when thou speakest
		Okangmut	when he speaks
	Relative	Okarame	when he speaks
		Dual
		Okaramnook	when we two speak
Of your two sons	Erniptik	okaraptik	when you two speak
		okaramik or okangmenik	when they two speak
		Plural
of our son or sons	Ernipta	okarapta	when we speak
of your son or sons	Ernipse	okarapse	when you speak
		okangmetta	when they speak
	Relative	Okaramik	when they speak

25

The Second Conjugation

Verbs of the second conjugation viz. those the root of which end in a vowel, retain their vowels and the particles ra and roo are changed into ga and goo e.g.

	Singular
	Nerregama	because, when I eat
	nerregavit	because, when thou eatest
	nerringmut	because, when he eats
Relative	nerregame	because, when he eats
	Dual
	nerregamnook	because, when we two eat
	nerregaptik	because, when you two eat
	nerregamik or nerringmenik	because, when they two eat
	Plural
	nerregapta	because, when we eat
	nerregapse	because, when you eat
	nerringmetta	because, when they eat
Relative	nerregamik	because, when they eat

Subjunctive—Second Form

The particles roo and goo are inserted in just the same manner as ra and ga but in the third persons, verbs of the first conjugation retain their final consonants while those of the second conjugation take a consonant before taking their final inflections e.g.

First Conjugation

	Sing.
	Okarooma	If I eat
	okaroovit	if thou eatest
	okakput	if he eats
Relative	okaroone	if he eats
	Dual
	Okaroomnook	if we two eat
	Okarooptik	if you two eat
	Okaroonik or	if they two eat
	Okakpennik	if they two eat
	Plural
	Okaroopta	if we eat
	Okaroopse	if you eat
	Okakpetta	if they eat
Relative	Okaroonik	if they eat

Second Conjugation

	Sing.	Dual	Plural
	nerregooma	Nerregoomnook	Nerregoopta
	nerregoovit	nerregooptik	nerregoopse
	nerrikput	nerrikpennik	nerrikpetta
Rel.	nerregoone	nerrikpennik	nerregoonik

N.B. Irregular forms are occasionally found in such words as tikkepok and nālakpok, these either retain or take a final consonant, e.g. tikkitgama because I arrive; nalakkama, because I obey.

Of the Other Moods

The other moods are formed much after the manner of the Indicative and Subjunctive and a remarkable regularity takes place in the first and second persons, the difficulty lying with the third. See the interrogative, Imperative, and Infinitive Moods. I now give a verb of the first conjugation in full.

26

Toosakpok, he heard

Indicative Mood

Present Tense
Singular
Toosakpoonga	I hear
Toosakpotit	thou hearest
Toosakpok	he hears
Dual
Toosakpogook	we two hear
Toosakpotik	you two hear
Toosakpook	they two hear
Plural
Toosakpogoot	we near
Toosakpose	you hear
Toosakpūt	they hear

The Negative Form

Toosangelanga	(Toosatyangelanga) see below.*	I do not hear at all (Emphatic negative)
Toosangelatit	Toosatyangelatit	thou dost not hear
Toosangelak	Toosatyangelak	he does not hear
Dual
Toosangelagook	Toosatyangelagook	we two do not hear
Toosangelatik	Toosatyangelatik	you two do not hear
Toosangelāk	Toosatyangelāk	they two do not hear
Plural
Toosangelagoot	Toosatyangelagoot	we do not hear
Toosangelase	Toosatyangelase	you do not hear
Toosangelet	Toosatyangelet	they do not hear

* There are two forms of negation used by the Eskimo, one (the longer form) being used to emphasize the negative sense, as toosatyangelanga, I do not hear at all.

Interrogative Mood

Sing.
Toosakpoongā?	Do I hear?
Toosakpēt?	Dost thou hear?
Toosakpā?	Does he hear?
or sometimes toosakkēt &c.
Dual
Toosakpēnook	Do we two hear?
Toosakpētik	Do you two hear?
Toosakpāk	Do they two hear?
Plural
Toosakpētā	Do we hear?
Toosakpēse	Do you hear?
Toosakpāt	Do they hear?

N.B. The k is used frequently amongst the Hudson Bay Eskimo.

Sometimes Toosakpoongā Do I hear? toosakpēt, Dost thou hear? &c. is used instead of other form.

Negative Form

This is just the same as in the indicative mood, interrogative emphasis being laid on the end of words, as,

Imperative Mood

Sing.
Toosarit	Hear thou
Toosagle	Let him hear
Dual
Toosaretik	Hear ye two
Toosaglik	Let (those two) hear
Plural
Toosaritse	Hear ye
Toosaglit	Let them hear

Besides these there are others which are used in the first persons, and which partake more of the nature of optative forms than imperative e.g.

Toosaglanga	Let me hear
Toosakta	Let us hear

The Indicative Mood with future tense is sometimes used with an Imperative sense, as,

Sing.
Toosangneakkotit	thou wilt hear
Dual
Toosangneakkotik	you two will hear
Plural
Toosangneakkose	you will hear

There are also other forms which are in frequent use and which modify the possible harshness of imperative form, e.g. tussalourit. Pray hear thou, do hear.

Subjunctive Mood

1st Form.

Because, when, for that he hears.

Sing.
Toosarama	because I hear
Toosaravit	because thou hearest
Toosangmut	because he hears
Toosarame (Rel.)	because he hears
Dual
Toosaramnook	because we two hear
Toosaraptik or sik	because you two hear
Toosaramik or Toosangmetik	because they two hear
Plural
Toosarapta	because we hear
Toosarapse	because you hear
Toosangmetta	because they hear
Toosaramik (Rel.)	because they hear

Second Form—if he hears.

Sing.
Toosarooma	If I hear
Toosaroovit	if thou hearest
Toosakput	if he hears
Toosaroone (Rel.)
Dual
Toosaroomnook	if we two hear
Toosarooptik or sik	if you two hear
Toosaroonik or Toosakpennik	if they two hear
Plural
Toosaroopta	if we hear
Toosaroopse	if you
Toosakpette	if if they hear
Toosaroonik (Rel.)	if they hear

Infinitive or Participial Mood.

Sing.
Toosaglunga	(I) to hear or hearing
Toosaglutit	(thou) to hear or hearing
Toosaglune	he to hear or hearing
Dual
Toosaglunook	we two to hear or hearing
Toosaglutik	you two to hear or hearing
Toosaglutik	they two to hear or hearing
Plural
Toosagluta	we to hear or hearing
Toosagluse	you to hear or hearing
Toosaglutik	they to hear or hearing

Another form is often heard particularly in the third persons in which the letter l is changed into t and the final consonant of verbal root is retained e.g.

Sing.
Toosaktune	he to hear or hearing
Dual
Toosaktutik	they two to hear or hearing
Plural
Toosaktutik	they to hear or hearing

Tense has, of necessity, a very limited use in this mood, but when used the ordinary time particles are inserted as follows:

Negative

Toosangnanga	I not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnak	thou not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnane	he not hearing or not to hear
Dual
Toosangnamnook	we two not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnatik or sik	you two not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnatik	they two not hearing or not to hear
Plural
Toosangnata	we not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnase	you not hearing or not to hear
Toosangnatik	they not hearing or not to hear

The Second Conjugation

This conjugation differs but little from the first. The changes are pointed out under the various moods.

The Indicative

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1st. In the present tense the final rowel of root is retained e.g.

Sing.
Nerrevoonga	I eat
Nerrevotit	thou eatest
Nerrevok &c.	he eats